Glow-worm tourism in Australia and New Zealand: Commodifying and conserving charismatic micro-fauna more

1 Glow-worm tourism in Australia and New Zealand: Commodifying and conserving charismatic micro-fauna C. Michael Hall INTRODUCTION Although more usually associated with Waitomo Caves in New Zealand, snare-forming glow-worms (Arachnocampa spp.) are an important element of tourism in both Australia and New Zealand. The larvae of all glow-worms construct mucus tubes from which they hang a snare or web of silk and mucus to capture prey that is attracted by its bioluminescence (Richards 1960; Baker 2002a). In Australia glow-worm tourism has been described as ´a multi-million dollar industry, thereby making glow-worms a commercially valuable organism´ (Baker 2003: 13). In New Zealand Waitomo Caves attracts on average more than annual 400,000 tourists visits, and in summer visitor numbers rise to approximately 2,000 people per day. However, despite their longstanding role as a tourist attraction relatively little research has been conducted into their tourism significance or their management as compared to other charismatic fauna and flora. This chapter therefore provides an overview of the different glow-worm species in Australia and New Zealand, their role in tourism and the development of appropriate visitor management strategies. GLOW-WORMS Australian and New Zealand glow-worms are the larval stage of a primitive fly (fungus gnats) (Diptera: Keroplatidae: Arachnocampa spp.) which, in their larval stage, are glowworms. Glow-worms are found in a variety of habitats ± such as caves, mine tunnels, railway tunnels, rainforest banks, and damp overhangs ± but always within areas of very high humidity (Baker 2002a). In terms of natural environments they are mostly found in caves, or sheltered locations in rainforests, particularly along riverbanks, where there is protection from wind. Eight species are present in Australia; five of them have been recently described (Baker et al. 2008; Baker 2010), and one in New Zealand (Table 1). All of the recently described species are geographically related to existing or recent distributions of temperate, tropical and sub-tropical rainforest. Table 1 here Baker (2010) described a new subgenus, Arachnocampa (Lucifera) subgen. nov., to include the Tasmanian species, Arachnocampa tasmaniensis and the Mount Buffalo glow-worm, Arachnocampa buffaloensis. The new subgenus is separated from the subgenera Arachnocampa (Arachnocampa) and Arachnocampa (Campara) by differences in wing venation (Baker et al. 2008; Baker 2010). The subgenus Arachnocampa now includes only the New Zealand species A. luminosa which differs from species of Lucifera and Campara by its method of vertical pupal suspension (Richards 1960). Larvae, the glowworm stage, have the longest life span of all of the life stages. Egg development in A. flava takes 10 days with the larvae then living for up to one year depending on food availability (mainly small flies and longtails) and environmental conditions. The larvae then pupate for 7-9 days and emerge as adult flies. In contrast to 2 larvae the adults have very short life spans with females living for two days and males no more than six (Baker 2003). A critical factor in the distribution of Arachnocampa species is that the adults are poor flyers which therefore restricts their ability to colonise new areas (Richards 1960; Baker and Merritt 2003; Baker et al. 2008). However, just as significant is the fragmentation of rainforest habitat occupied by Arachnocampa as well as the isolation of wet cave systems. Further rainforest fragmentation as a result of clearance or environmental change would clearly increase pressure on glowworm populations. The Mount Buller Glow-worm is likely a relict from when the area was covered in temperate rainforest. TOURISM The notion of charismatic fauna and flora is often applied to species that serves as flagships for conservation efforts (Leader-Williams and Dublin 2000; Hall et al. 2011), including insects (New et al. 1995; Lemelin 2007). In a broader sense, charisma is closely associated with the attractiveness of something and implies the possession of special qualities (Hall et al. 2011). Lorimer (2007) developed a three-part typology of non-human charisma, consisting of ecological, aesthetic, and corporeal charisma, which she applied to an exploration of how flagship species in the UK were utilized to achieve biodiversity conservation goals. According to Lorimer (2007) ecological charisma refers to both the frequency at which humans encounter a species and the combination of properties that make an organism readily identifiable to humans. Ecological charisma is therefore an indication of familiarity with an organism. Aesthetic charisma is defined by an organism¶s appearance and behaviour, and the emotional responses that may be triggered by these in humans (Lorimer 2006). Finally, corporeal charisma refers to the prolonged and specialised interaction of particular groups of people with specific organisms. Glow-worm¶s fulfill all of these aspects of non-human charisma, they are identifiable and have long been recognized by humans, the light from glow-worms means that they are also regarded as an attractive curiosity (Wilson 2004). Their common name of glow-worm also makes them potentially more attractive as well as contributes to their conservation. As Baker (2003: 13) commented, ³Being fly larvae, a more literal description of this organism would be µglow-maggot¶, however there is little chance this name will catch on in the tourism market´. Glow-worm viewing in its natural habitat is an activity that occurs in a cave or in a rainforest at night-time. However, because of the potential to attract greater number of visitors during the day and to make glow-worms more accessible, Wilson et al. (2004) note that some entrepreneurs have created artificial habitats for glow worms to attract day-time (fee-paying) visitors (Wilson et al. 2004; Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM) 2010). The only significant Australian study of glow-worm tourists motivations and experiences is Wilson et al¶s (2004) study of visitors to the Natural Bridge glow-worm colony in Springbrook National Park, Queensland. Although the region was also subject to a visitor capacity assessment by the Queensland Park and Wildlife Service (DERM 2010) in May 2007. According to Wilson et al. (2004) visitor numbers brought to Natural Bridge by commercial tour operators averaged more than 50,000 a year during the study period 2001-2003. In addition to the mostly Asian visitors brought by commercial tour operators, the number of independent visitors was around 13,000 per 3 annum for the study period. This is a significant figure and comparable to other commercial species-focused tour operations in south-east Queensland, such as whale watching in Hervey Bay (Wilson et al. 2004). As of 2007, 13 commercial held day-time commercial activity permits and seven commercial operators held night-time permits to the Natural Bridge and Mt Cougal sections of Springbrook National Park and Joalah (Curtis Falls) section of Tamborine National Park in the Gold Coast hinterland of south-east Queensland (DERM 2010). Table 2 provides an overview of the glow-worm tourism sites available in the region as of May 2007. The most visited of these by far is Natural Bridge where the cave is home to one of the largest glow-worm colonies in Australia (DERM 2010). As of 2007 Natural Bridge received approximately 280,000 visits per year. Of these about 180,000 or 65% were made during the day and 99,000 or 35% at night. Most day visitors were not part of commercial groups. In contrast, most night visitors are part of commercial tours. ³At peak times the site can have up to 260 persons at one time, and on a peak day as many as 1800 people may have visited, arriving by car, motorbike and various buses up to 50-seater coaches´ (DERM 2010: 18). In 2005±06, commercial operators conducted night tours for over 80,000 visitors, a significant increase over the Wilson et al (2004) figures. Changes in commercial visitation levels reflected seasonal peaks in the Asian tourism market. In contrast, commercial day use of Natural Bridge (23,000 visits) was much less but was still significant and growing despite a generally static regional tourism industry (DERM 2010). According to DERM (2010: 6): ³In addition to the fees paid for access, Tourism operators have contributed to the better management of the national parks by sponsoring research and contributing to site facilities and supervision´. Insert Table 2 here The local significance of glow-worm tourism in the Gold Coast hinterland is moderated by the finding by Wilson et al. (2004) that only a very small number of visitors stayed in Springbrook because of the glow-worms and no extra days were spent in the area because of their presence. The amount of money spent by surveyed tourists within a 25 km radius of Springbook was also small and the economic impacts from this form of tourism is not significant to the immediate local economy. However, Wilson et al. (2004) did note that although visitor figures were not available, there were two private properties in Springbrook that offer glow worm viewing facilities during the day and at night they charge a fee and maintain a restaurant and conduct other activities (eg. pottery displays) to µadd value¶ to their business operations. Of the 18.6% of visitors who spent money within 25 km of the site, the maximum amount spent per person was Aus.$40 and the minimum amount was Aus.$1.70. The average amount was Aus.$12.20. Nevertheless, as Wilson et al. (2004: 21) noted, ³this does not mean that free glow worm viewing at Springbrook National Park is not a valuable economic asset. Commercial tour operators¶ fees for the excursion that involves glow worm viewing are high and judging by the number of visitors« the revenue generated by this activity in the Gold Coast region/southeast Queensland region must be considerable´. In terms of the main purposes to visit to see the glow-worms the main purpose of the visit was to entertain visitors (25.5% of respondents). Curiosity was ranked second (25.1%) as the main reason for the visit followed by the star-like features of the glowworm display (22.3%). The vast majority (98%) of respondents were satisfied by their 4 visit. The knowledge of glow-worms of the majority of visitors was also reasonably high (although there was uncertainty regarding some specific questions such as ³what do the adult glow worms look like´. Importantly for future conservation efforts the majority of visitors were willing to purchase a booklet that explained the biology and ecology of glow-worms (Wilson et al. 2004). Doorne (1999, 2000) undertook a study of the visitor experience at Waitomo Glowworm Cave. According to Doorne (1999) only 54% of the respondents to his survey knew anything about the Glowworm Cave prior to visitation with most respondents travelling south (many to Rotorua). Doorne¶s (1999) results suggested a high level of satisfaction with the Glowworm Cave and glowworms but there was significant dissatisfaction with other elements of the product including the number of groups in the cave (e.g. 45% of respondents that were surveyed in summer were not satisfied); waiting for other groups during the tour (e.g. 44% in summer were not satisfied); and facilities such as toilets and the shop. Asian groups (Korea, Japan, Taiwan) were the least satisfied with waiting either before the tour, during the tour, or waiting for the boat). In general, satisfaction levels were lower during the summer period than in winter. This was especially noticeable for elements relating to the level of visitation including: y waiting before the cave tour; y waiting to buy cave tickets;  y the size of the cave tour group;  y the number of groups in the cave; and y waiting for other groups in the cave. Such results highlight the importance of developing good management practices not only for glow-worm conservation but also for the visitor experience. Although the overall number of tourists who engage in glow-worm tourism is unknown there is a large number of tourism businesses which promote glow-worm tours. Table 3 provides an overview of glow-worm tourism businesses via a search of New Zealand tourism websites undertaken in June 2011. The table indicates that glow-worm tours are located in five locations in the South Island, of which Te Anau is the most significant in terms of visitor numbers and economic impact (Warren et al. 2000). Ten North Island locations promote glow-worm tourism, of which Waitomo is the most important. Waitomo attracts of the order of 450,000-500,000 visitors a year, although estimates vary (Doorne 1999; Pavlovich and Kearins 2004). For example, Tourism Holdings Limited (THL) which operates the Waitomo Glowworm Caves, Ruakuri Cave, Aranui Cave and The Legendary Black Water Rafting in the Waitomo region, claims on their corporate website that these businesses host ³close to a million international and domestic tourist to the area each year´ (THL 2011). However, Waitomo is the only destination for which glow-worms are the primary attraction, as Table 3 indicates for many businesses and regional tourism organisations offer a much wider range of products in order to remain commercially viable. Nevertheless, the numbers of tourists and tourism operations that promote glow-worm tourism in New Zealand and Australia does highlight the need for the development of appropriate visitor management strategies. Insert table 3 here VISITOR MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 5 Glow-worms can be affected by tourism in a number of different ways: ‡ direct disturbance of glow-worms ‡ impact on glow±worm prey ‡ affects on glow-worm habitat and environments. These affects can occur at both the larval and fly stages. Baker (2003) reported that experiments indicated that larvae were negatively affected by torchlight. Larvae moved away from the torchlight while switching off their own light source. Larvae took up to ten minutes to turn their light back on, thereby decreasing the density of the display for following tourists. Correlations between climatic data and the number of glow-worms glowing at both a heavily visited tourism site and a non-visited site revealed similar overall fluctuations, indicating weather was the major factor involved in populations crashes at particular times of the year (Baker 2003). Population change appears closely related to seasonal and changes in climatic conditions including rainfall, temperature and relative humidity (Baker 2002; Driessen 2009). In Tasmania Driessen (2009) monitored glow-worm populations for 24 months in both Exit and Mystery Creek Cave. He found a strong seasonal pattern, with pupae and adults most common in spring and summer. The increase in numbers of pupae and adults coincided with an increase in the number of prey caught in silk threads produced by the larvae. Larvae were present throughout the year but the number glowing varied both seasonally and spatially. In Mystery Creek Cave, the number of larvae glowing was generally highest during summer and autumn and lowest in winter and early spring. In Exit Cave, there was no consistent seasonal pattern in the number of larvae glowing among sites, and overall there was less variation between monthly counts than at Mystery Creek Cave. Driesen (2009) speculates that this difference in seasonal patterns between the two caves may be due to climatic difference, with Mystery Creek Cave possibly experiencing a greater drying out of the cave air in winter than Exit Cave. However, such research also highlights the need for careful management of visitation to glow-worm caves because of the potential impacts on temperatures and humidity, as well as disturbance of prey. In the case of Waitomo Caves Schmekal and de Freitas (2001) found that air exchange between the cave and the outside can increase or decrease condensation rates depending on warm-season and cool-season differences and by the opening and closing of the solid door at the Upper Entrance to the cave. As a result of their research a set of management guidelines was developed to maintain appropriate temperatures, condensation and humidity levels in different zones of the cave. In non-cave environments visitors will have very little affect on temperature and humidity levels. Instead, general climatic and weather conditions will have the most impact. In such circumstances the greatest tourism-related risk is from inappropriate tourist behavior (Baker 2002b, 2003) as well as poor design of tourist access and facilities. For example, at Natural Bridge in Queensland, ³Damage in the past has or may have been caused by inappropriate [general public visitor] behaviours such as fires in the cave and the unwitting use of insect repellents´ (DERM 2010: 26). In the case of Queensland the overall objectives for the management of glow-worm commercial operations on National Parks are to: 6 provide fair and equitable access to the cultural and natural resources of glowworm sites to all user groups ensure visitor safety and amenity ensure that commercial guided tours are ecologically sustainable and promote the conservation values and objectives of the protected area develop a regulated, self-managed system for commercial operations which provides maximum visitor through-put, subject to environmental and social quality and sustainability provide a level of market security and return to commercial operators ensure that a variety of quality goods and services are provided by commercial tour operators continue communication between [the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service] and tour operators to improve the awareness of roles, needs and problems of each party (DERM 2010: 6). y y y y y y y With respect to Natural Bridge in Springbrook National Park probably the most visited glow-worm colony in Australia, for example, site management recommendations to underpin its sustainable visitor capacity numbers are covered seven key areas (DERM 2010): y Glow-worm habitat protection y Visitor safety y Size and layout of the carpark y Flow of visitors at the site y Activities permitted at the site y Managing impacts on neighbouring properties and the community y Managing general public visitors. In the case of Natural Bridge, although the annual use levels of the site at night was considered sustainable, DERM (2010) recommended changes in the number of people at the site at the same time (Persons at One Time or PAOT) should be reduced: ³To achieve a more predictable and even PAOT it is recommended that Commercial Tour Operator (CTO) groups and General Public Visitor (GPVs) arrivals at night be scheduled between 6 and 10pm with a peak commercial period between 7 and 9pm. This creates quieter shoulders from 6±7 and 9±10pm which will be promoted to GPVs as a more suitable time to visit´ (DERM 2010: 2). Importantly, such measures may also have a positive benefit for tourism as well because of the potential to increase levels of tourist satisfaction by minimizing the likelihood of overcrowding (Doorne 1999). In the case of the Waitomo Caves Doorne (1999) recommended a number of basic approaches to try and manage congestion issues including developing a visitor management process driven by quantifiable objectives (and surveys); introducing logging and reporting systems for guides and staff; and standardising traffic management practices. CONCLUSIONS Luminescent insects such as glow-worms are a form of charismatic micro-fauna that come out of the pages of Hans Christian Andersen or harks back to myths, legends and stories of enchanted forests and caves. The continuing attraction is witnessed in the large numbers of tourists who visit glow-worm colonies in Australian and New Zealand caves and forests. However, the development of glow-worm tourism presents the same problems to managers and conservationists as any other form of nature-based tourism in 7 that there is a need to ensure that visitation does not damage the very species and biodiversity that attracted tourists in the first place (Hall 2010). In Australia in particular substantial efforts are being put in place to manage visitor access to glow-worm colonies, many of which occur in national parks. This includes sponsorship by governments and the tourism industry of biological research to develop appropriate management strategies (Baker 2002b), that have proven significant for improving the sustainability of glow-worm populations as well as commercial operations (DERM 2010). In New Zealand research has been more focused on a single location, Waitomo Caves (Doorne 1999; Schmekal and de Freitas 2001), which although significant because of its large numbers of tourists represents only one of a number of areas in the country where glow-worm tourism is promoted. Indeed, arguably a longer-term task in glow-worm conservation is going to be developing management strategies in forest and riverbank locations in which conservation agencies have a lower presence and consequently greater difficulties in controlling access. Yet the interest of many people in glow-worms and their somewhat Romantic nature may well prove the key to their survival with their long-term potential for direct and indirect tourist expenditure to provide financial support for their conservation being critical. In a world where the vast majority of species are not conserved for their intrinsic right to exist but for the values they provide to humans, the glow-worm is likely to not only remain the subject of fairy tales but also have a happy ending. Acknowledgement With great thanks to Jody Cowper-James for assisting with the survey of New Zealand tour operators. REFERENCES Baker, C.H. (2002a) µDipteran glow-worms: Marvelous maggots weave magic for tourists¶, Biodiversity, 3(4): 23-27. Baker, C.H. (2002b) A biological basis for management of glow-worm populations of ecotourism significance. University of Queensland Honours Thesis, Gold Coast: CRC Sustainable Tourism, Common Ground Publications. Baker, C.H. (2003) µAustralian glow-worms: Managing an important biological resource¶, Australasian Cave and Karst Management Association Inc. Journal, 53: 1316. Baker, C.H. (2010) µA new subgenus and five new species of Australian glow-worms (Diptera: Keroplatidae: Arachnocampa)¶, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 55(1): 11-41. Baker, C.H. and Merritt, D.J. (2003) µLife cycle of an Australian glow-worm Arachnocampa flava Harrison (Diptera: Keroplatidae: Arachnocampinae)¶, Australian Entomologist, 30(2): 45-55. Baker, C.H. and Merritt, D.J. (2004) µManagement of Australian glow-worms (Diptera: Keroplatidae: Archnocampa spp,): identification of threats and types of glow-worm tourism¶, in J. LaSalle, M.Patten and M. Zalucki (eds.) XXII International Congress of Entomology. Entomology Strength in Diversity, Brisbane, Australia, 15-21 August. Brisbane: Carillon Conference Management. Baker, C.H., Graham, G.C., Scott, K.D., Cameron, S.L., Yeates, D.K. and Merritt, D.J. (2008) µDistribution and phylogenetic relationships of Australian glow-worms 8 Arachnocampa (Diptera, Keroplatidae)¶, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 48(2): 506-514. Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM) (2010) Gold Coast Hinterland Glow-worm Sites. Sustainable Visitor Capacity, May 2007, Brisbane: Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service Department of Environment and Resource Management Doorne, S. (1999) Visitor experience at the Waitomo Glowworm. Cave, Science for Conservation 95, Wellington: Department of Conservation. Doorne, S. (2000) µCaves, cultures and crowds: Carrying capacity meets consumer sovereignty¶, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8: 116-130. Driessen, M.M. (2009) Baseline monitoring of the Tasmanian Glow-worm and other cave fauna Exit Cave and Mystery Creek Cave ± Tasmania, Nature Conservation Report 09/02, Hobart: Biodiversity Conservation Branch, Resource Management and Conservation Division, Department of Primary Industries and Water. Hall, C.M. (2010) µTourism and biodiversity: More significant than climate change?¶ Journal of Heritage Tourism, 5(4): 253-266. Hall, C.M., James, M. and Baird, T. (2011) µForests and trees as charismatic megaflora: Implications for heritage tourism and conservation¶, Journal of Heritage Tourism, 6(4): p-p. Leader-Williams, N.,and Dublin, H. (2000) µCharismatic megafauna as ³flagship´ species¶, in A. Entwistle and N. Dunstone (eds.) Priorities for the Conservation of mammalian Diversity: Has the panda had its day?, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lemelin, R.H. (2007) µFinding beauty in the dragon: The role of dragonflies in recreation and tourism¶, Journal of Ecotourism, 6: 139-145. Lorimer, J. (2006) µNon-human charisma: Which species trigger our emotions and why?¶ Ecos, 27(1): 20-27. Lorimer, J. (2007) µNonhuman charisma¶, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 25: 911-932. Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (1990) The New Zealand Glowworm, Waitomo: Waitomo Caves Museum Society Inc. New, T.R., Pyle, R.M., Thomas, J.A., Thomas, C.D. and Hammond, P.C. (1995) µButterfly conservation management¶, Annual Review of Entomology, 40: 57-83. Pavlovich, K. and Kearins, K. (2004) µStructural embeddedness and communitybuilding through collaborative network relationships¶, M@n@gement, 7(3): 195-214. Pugsley, C.W. (1983) µLiterature review of the New Zealand glowworm Arachnocampa luminosa (Diptera: Keroplatidae) and related cave-dwelling Diptera¶, New Zealand Entomologist, 7: 419-424. Richards, A.M. (1960) µObservations on the New Zealand glow-worm Arachnocampa luminosa (Skuse) 1890¶, Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 88: 433436. Schmekal, A.A. and de Freitas, C.R. (2001) Condensation in Glow-worm Cave, Waitomo, New Zealand: Management guidelines. Department of Conservation Science Internal Series 15. Wellington: Department of Conservation. Tourism Holdings Limited (THL) (2011) THL Businesses. Online. Available HTTP: <http://www.thlonline.com/THLBusinesses/default.aspx> (Accessed 18 September 2011). Warren, J., Taylor, N. and McClintock, W. (2000) Resource Community Formation & Change: A Case Study of Te Anau, Working Paper 27, Christchurch: Taylor Baines & Associates. 9 Wilson, C., Tisdell, C. and Merritt, D. (2004) Glow Worms as a Tourist Attraction in Springbrook National Park: Visitor Attitudes and Economic Issues, Working Papers on Economics, Ecology and the Environment No. 105, St. Lucia: School of Economics, University of Queensland. 10 Table 1 Arachnocampa spp. in Australia and New Zealand Region New Zealand Species A. luminosa Comments Found throughout New Zealand on both the North and South islands. Its M ori name is titiwai, meaning "projected over water". The Waitomo Caves on the North Island is an internationally recognised attraction, although there is also significant glow-worm tourism on the South Island. Endemic to Tasmania (as the name suggests). The glow-worms in the Marakoopa Cave, Mole Creek Karst National Park, which is part of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, have been a tourist attraction since the late 19th Century. The Natural Bridge in Springbook National Park inland from the Gold Coast is one of the most accesible colonies open to visitors The Newnes glow worm tunnel, a disused railway tunnel in the Wolgan Valley in the Wollemi National Park, part of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, is one of the most well-known colonies available to visitors. Consists of a colony of Arachnocampa found in a sub-alpine cave on Mount Buffalo in Victoria, part of Mount Buffalo National Park. Because of its restricted distribution the Victorian Government listed it (calling it the Mount Buffalo Glow-Worm) as a threatened species. Described 2010 Described 2010 Tasmania A. tasmaniensis South-East A. flava Queensland, north-east NSW NSW, southern A. richardsae rainforest Victoria, Mount Buffalo A. buffaloensis (Mount Buffalo Glow-worm) Western Victoria, Otway ranges Eastern Victoria, Gippsland North Queensland tropical rainforest South-East Queensland, northern NSW A. otwayensis A. gippslandensis A. tropica Described 2010 A. girraweenensis Described 2010 Source: derived from Pugsley 1983; Meyer-Rochow 1990; Baker 2002b, 2003, 2010; Wilson et al. 2004; Baker et al. 2008. 11 Table 2: Glow-worm sites in the Gold Coast Hinterland as of May 2007 Location National Parks Natural Bridge Location Springbrook National Park Description The most popular national park site for night-time glow-worm tourism because the display of bioluminescence is reliable all year. This feature makes the site highly viable for tour operations marketed in advance and overseas. Entering a cave to see glow-worms is also a highly desirable experience that ³adds value´ to the tour. In summer some colonies visible along banks to side of walking track. Access via 1km return circuit bitumen walking track. Adjacent picnic area. Receives about 280,000 visits per year. Of these about 180,000 or 65% were made during the day and 99,000 or 35% at night. At peak times the site can have up to 260 persons at any one time, and on a peak day as many as 1800 people may have visited Glow-worms can be seen at night in the earthen banks to the side of a rainforest walking track. Limited display. There is no primary glow-worm concentration. 1.1km return on bitumen walking track. About 60,000 people visit Mt Cougal each year ² almost all general visitors. At peak times, there can be up to 300 people in a day, and up to 80 people at one time. Glow-worms occur in the banks under and to the left of Curtis Falls. They can be seen from the viewing platform which looks out to the falls. Because they are far more exposed than at Natural Bridge, their prevalence is affected by weather and season. The display can vary from a few lights to many. Graded earth walking track, noncircuit, 1.6km return. About 173,000 people visit Joalah each year with tour operators or as general visitors. At peak times the site can have up to 250 persons at once, and the total for a peak day could be 800 people. Glow-worms in earth bank on rainforest walk. Limited display. More a spot-light walk with the chance of seeing some glow-worms. 3km graded earth walking track circuit. Small picnic area with BBQ and seating. Steep gully just before Picnic Rock 3km from O'Reilly¶s Guesthouse. Glowworm City (marked on old maps) on the Box Forest Track 3.5-4km from O¶Reilly¶s. Viewing Time Night viewing. 13 commercial tour operators with day permits and seven with night permits Mt Cougal Springbrook National Park Night viewing. Very few commercial tour operators visit at night and during 2004-6 no passenger returns were lodged for night tours. Night viewing. Not used for commercial tours as of 2007. Joalah Tamborine National Park Palm Grove Tamborine National Park Night viewing Box Forest Track Lamington National Park Night viewing 12 Private natural conditions Star Pools Tamborine Mountain Road, North Tamborine O¶Reilly¶s Morans Creek Natural glow-worm colony on private land. Three spots on high banks of Morans Creek. One spot is 120m above the Wishing Tree, one 180m below it and another a further 80m downstream. The latter now has a micro- watering/misting system to maintain glow- worm numbers. Artificial cave for day and night glowworm viewing. Artificial cave with reversed day±night cycle for daytime glow-worm viewing. Night viewing Night viewing Private artificial conditions Springbrook Forest of Dreams Tamborine Cedar Creek Estate Vineyard and Winery Day and night viewing by appointment 10am ± 4pm Source: Derived from DERM 2010 13 Table 3 New Zealand tourism businesses promoting glow-worm tourism as of June 2011 Location North Island Kaitaia, Northland Business Eco Valley Other products Bushwalks, Encounters with Glow Worms, Weta, Freshwater Crayfish and Kiwi birds Kayak tours, Kayak rentals, Kayak sales Kayak hire, Guided trips, Instruction and courses, Fitness and exercise training, Overnight camping Scenic coastal tours, Nature walks, 4WD safaris, Guided hunting trips, Outdoor adventure course Kayak shop, Kayak tours, Kayak school, After school programme, Adventure park Online shop, Kayak club and magazine, Courses and licensing Team building activities, School programme, Rotorua tours, Wildlife tours, Kayak tours, Blokart, Moutain Biking tours, Cruise Ship tours, Boat Cruises Caving, Abseiling, Rock climbing Swimming and Kayaking, Birdwatching, Rockhounding and gold panning, Shop Lake Karapiro, Waipa District Mangakino, Waikato The Boatshed Kayaks Tranquility Tours Pauanui Beach, Coromandel Tauranga, Bay of Plenty Tauranga, Bay of Plenty Tauranga, Bay of Plenty Wincorp Adventures Waimarino Canoe and Kayak Ltd Adventure Bay of Plenty Te Kuiti, Waikato Thames, Coromandel Green Glo Eco-adventures Te Mata Lodge Waiomio Valley, Northland Waitomo, Waikato Kawiti Caves Discover Waitomo (owned by Tourism Holdings Limited) (Includes Waitomo Glowworm Caves, Ruakuri Cave, Aranui Cave, The Legendary Black Water Rafting Co.) Waitomo Adventures Spellbound Glowworm and Cave Tours Cave World Wellington Botanic Gardens Catlins Tours (owned by Pounawea Grove Motels) Catlins Adventures and Personalised Tours Glowworm Tours (Otago Cycle Hire) Oparara Guided Tours Real Journeys Ltd Visitor centre, Restaurant, Café, Gift shop, Theatre, Exhibition centre, Conference facilities Waitomo, Waikato Waitomo, Waikato Waitomo, Waikato Wellington South Island Catlins, Southland Catlins, Southland Abseiling, Caving, Tubing, Blackwater rafting, Rock climbing Abseiling, Tubing Dunedin, Otago Karamea, West Coast Te Anau, Fiordland Westport, West Coast Norwest Adventures Limited Accommodation, Sightseeing tours, Kayaking, Penguin excursions Scenic tours, Kayaking adventures, Yellow Eyed Penguin Tour, Catlins River Walk Cycle Hire and Bike tours, Backpacker camping packages Guided bush walks, Guided kayak tours Cave tour includes cruise across Lake Te Anau and informative displays at Cavern House Underworld rafting, Adventure caving, Charleston Nile River Rainforest Train 14 Notes on Contributors At the time of writing Michael Hall was a Professor at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand; Docent in the Department of Geography, University of Oulu, Finland, and Visiting Professor at Linneaus University, Kalmar. Co-editor of Current Issues in Tourism he has published widely on tourism, heritage conservation and management, environmental history and environmental change. Professor C. Michael Hall. Department of Management, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand 8140 e mail: michael.hall@canterbury.ac.nz